Grammar

                                                                 English grammar

·        Articles     are   basically adjectives  and  says something special about Noun. 

·        There are only three adjectives which are call by a special name “ARTICLES” A , AN , THE.

·        Of these , two are indefinite article (A , AN) and one is definite article (The).

·        When you are not talking about any specific person , place or thing , a or an is used.

          I came across a beggar on the street. ( any beggar , no specific one)

          An apple a day keeps the doctor away ( any apple, any day, refers to a particular doctor whom you regularly visit or who visits your house , when you get ill.)

          If you eat an apple every day, you will not ever need to go to a doctor. (Here the term doctor is generalized.).

                                   USE OF A or AN

• A or An are used with singular countable nouns. e.g.,  a boy, an orange
• The choice between   “a”   and   “an” is determined by  the sound of the word following  them. If   a word is pronounced  with a vowel sound (Sound is important not vowel AEIOU) then “an” is used.  Look at the following words which begin with vowel but are not pronounced with a vowel sound.  A One –Rupee note (pronounced as wan)  a useful animal  (pronounced as “Yusful”) , a European, a university, a union.    

Conversely, following words which begins with a consonant but pronounced with a vowel sound , thus preceded by article “an”. An hour (pronounced as Awar), An year ( ear)

an M.B.A ( acronym pronounced as am.bee.ae , but  we say “ He was holding a Masters degree in Business Administration”) ,

It was an honour to receive this award ( pronounced as Aunor).

• For all other cases

Where words begin with vowels and also pronounced with vowel sound An is uniformly used.

e.g. An ass, an orange, an umbrella, an inkpad, an inch, an able man , an island etc.

Similarly where words begin with consonants and also pronounced with consonant sound A is used. E.g., a young man,  a very dear person,  a difficult question.

                                                  

                                                                             USE OF THE

                

• When we talk about a particular person place or thing , which has already been referred to or indicated to , then article The is used  as ,

The book you want is out of print . ( I need a book or magazine as a pastime)

Let us go to the park ( but – one should visit a park daily to breath fresh air).

• When a singular noun represents a whole class .

The cow is a useful animal. (but when we use plurals to represent a class then article is not used . such as – Cows are useful animals.)

The cat loves comfort ( but ---- Cats make great pets)

The rose is the sweetest of all flowers.

The poor are always with us.

• Before some proper nouns like oceans and seas ( the pacific , the black sea), Rivers (the Ganga, the nile) canals (the suez canal ) , deserts ( the Sahara) Group of  islands (the west indies) Mountain ranges ( The Himalayas , The alps)  Name of the countries, which includes words like Republic or kingdom ( The irish republic, The United Kingdom) Countries representing group of states or islands ( The United states of America, the Netherlands, the UAE , etc) Religious books ( The Vedas, the Ramayan, The Puranas, the Bhagwat geeta, The bible) before the names of unique things ( The sun, the moon, the sky, the ocean , the sea, the earth) before superlatives (the best, the most, the darkest hour) with ordinals like first , second , third etc. ( He was the first man to arrive, The ninth chapter of this book) to emphasize or show the importance of (The verb is the word in a sentence) with comparatives ( The more the merrier, The more they get the more they want). Before musical instruments( He can play the flute) before proper noun being used as common nouns ( Kalidas is the shakespeare  of India, the warrior in him ….)

                                                    WHEN NOT TO USE ARTICLE 

• Before the names of substances and abstract nouns (uncountable nouns ) used in general sense.

Sugar is bad for your teeth.

Gold is a precious metal.

Honesty is the best policy.

Virtue is its own reward.

      But if they are used in a particular reference , article the is used.

Would you pass me the sugar ?

The wisdom of Solomon is great.

• Before plural countable nouns used in general sense.

Children like chocolates.  ( but …. Where are the children ?)

Computers are used in many offices.

Women like  it when men send them flowers! ( A woman is more sensitive than a man)

Houses are expensive in that neighbourhood.

People think all Canadians speak English and French, but they’re wrong.

Companies in Canada pay very high taxes.

I love reading books.

• Before most proper nouns such as Names of people(Ram ,shyam Gopal) Name of continents , countries , cities ( Europe, Australia, India , Mumbai) Names of individual mountains (Mount everest) Individual islands, lakes, hills etc.

      I live in Canada.

      I’m going to Europe next month on vacation.

     Lake Ontario and Lake Huron are 2 of the Great Lakes.

     Mt. Fuji is the highest mountain in Japan.

     Mt. Rosa is part of the Alps mountain range.
    *Mt. Rosa is one mountain; The Alps describe a group of mountains.

       Bill Gates founded Microsoft.

      Wal-Mart is the largest employer in the U.S.

      McDonald’s has restaurants in 119 countries.

      I use Twitter and Facebook every day.

      I am studying Russian.

      I speak French.

      In Brazil people speak Portuguese.

       I teach people how to speak English.

• Before names of meals used in general sense  like

Dinner is ready. What time do you have lunch.

But

I had a late lunch today.

The dinner we had at Taj hotel was very nice.

• Before languages

We are studying English.

They speak Punjabi at hone.

• Before School , college, church, bed, table, hospital, market, prison in general sense.

I learnt French at school.

We go to church every Sunday.

My uncle is still in hospital.

But

The school is very near my home. (means the school , where I study)

I met him at the church.

I went to the hospital to see my uncle.

• Before names of relations like  father, mother,aunt, uncle, cook, nurse.

Father has returned.

Aunt wants to see her.

Hair or Hairs  
The word hair is usually used without article in singular number when it refers to all the hairs on one's head in general. But if it refers to more than one hair, a few hairs, then it takes the plural form without an article, and needs a plural verb.

George has (-) brown hair, but I found a hair on the sofa and suspect he's getting some gray hairs.

George's hair is brown, but one hair I found was grey, so I think there are probably more grey hairs on his head as well.

Hair can be singular (one hair), non-count singular (meaning an entire growth of hairs, such as on the head: hair) or plural (three hairs). Whenever the form is singular ("hair") the singular form of the verb is used; when it is plural ("hairs"), the plural verb form is used:
"Natasha's hair is long."
"There are hairs on your coat."
As a whole: singular. 'My hair was brown; now it's grey.'

Separate hairs are plural (if there's more than one): 'My wife found some blonde hairs on my jacket'.

The number vs A number      
The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while the expression a number is followed by a plural verb.
Examples:
The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.
A number of people have written in about this subject.
Choose the correct word in each sentence.
1. The number of people lined up for tickets was/were four hundred.  was
2. A number of suggestions was/were made.    were
3. There is/are a number of important announcements in the bulletin.   are
4. Here is/are the number of milk shakes you requested.            Is
Use of THE before countries
If the country name is common nouns, use the - the Czech Republic, the United Kingdom.
If it is a group of islands, use the - the Bahamas, the Maldives.
If it the name is common nouns followed by 'of', use the - the United States of America, the Peoples Republic of China.
If the name is taken from a geographical feature, you should use the - the Yemen, the Lebanon. This last one is declining though.
India is just a plain old proper noun, like a persons name, and hence takes no article.

Difference between amount of and number of

The phrases amount of and number of have slightly different meanings.
Amount of is used with uncountable singular nouns. Uncountable nouns are those nouns that refer to things you cannot measure or count. Examples are: hate, beauty, respect, information etc.

• A computer can store a vast amount of information.

The noun information is both singular and uncountable – it refers to an idea that cannot be measured.

• Almost all of us have to deal with a certain amount of stress.

The word stress refers to an idea that cannot be measured.

• A certain amount of confidence is absolutely essential for success in life.

The nouns amount and number are both used to talk about quantities. Amount is used before uncountable nouns. Number is used before plural nouns.
Compare:

• That website receives only a small amount of traffic. (Traffic is an uncountable singular noun and hence we use amount of.)
• That website receives only a small number of visitors. (Visitors is a plural noun and hence we use number of.)

The words amount and number can be modified by the expressions small and large. Note that big and little are not normally used with amount and number.

• A large number of people want to buy cars. (NOT A big number of people want to buy cars.)
• You only need to contribute a small amount. (NOT You only need to contribute a little amount.)

Complete the following sentences using being or been.
1. She has always ………………….. a very naughty girl. (being / been)  Been
2. You are …………………… stupid. (being / been)   being
3. His latest album has …………………. grabbing a lot of headlines since its launch. (being / been) been
4. Have they ………………….. informed? (being / been) been
5. An exhibition of her paintings is ………………….. held next week. (being / been) being

Common errors – miscellaneous

Incorrect: My hairs are grey.
Correct: My hair is grey.
Hair is an uncountable noun in English and as such it does not have a plural form.
Incorrect: I availed of this opportunity.
Correct: I availed myself of this opportunity.
Incorrect: I enjoyed during the holidays.
Correct: I enjoyed myself during the holidays.
To talk about having a good time, we use enjoy yourself, enjoy myself etc.
Incorrect: He is guilty, isn’t it?
Correct: He is guilty, isn’t he?
Incorrect: The gold is a precious metal.
Correct: Gold is a precious metal.
Material nouns are used without articles.
Incorrect: It is raining for four hours.
Correct: It has been raining for four hours.
To talk about an event that started in the past and has been continuing up to the present, we use a present perfect continuous tense.
Incorrect: Work hard lest you may fail.
Correct: Work hard lest you should fail.
The only auxiliary verb that can be used after lest is should.
Incorrect: Please describe us your wife.
Correct: Please describe your wife to us.
Incorrect: Could you suggest me a good dentist?
Correct: Could you suggest a good dentist to me?
The verbs explain, suggest and describe cannot be used with the structure indirect object + direct object.
Incorrect: He is cleverest of the four brothers.
Correct: He is the cleverest of the four brothers.
We use the article the with superlative adjectives.
Incorrect: Choose the best of the two options.
Correct: Choose the better of the two options.
When a group has just two members, we use the comparative instead of the superlative.
Here are some mistakes students often make in the use of nouns.
Incorrect: She likes to feed the poors.
Correct: She likes to feed the poor.
Incorrect: He is working for the blinds.
Correct: He is working for the blind.
Expressions like the poor, the blind, the deaf etc., are always plural. We don’t have to make their plural forms by adding –s to them.
Incorrect: I told these news to my father.
Correct: I told this news to my father.
News is a singular uncountable noun. Therefore it has to be used with a singular determiner.
Incorrect: The teacher gave us many advices.
Correct: The teacher gave us some advice.
Advice is an uncountable noun. It does not have a plural form. The determiner many is only used with plural countable nouns.
Incorrect: I have a five dollars note.
Correct: I have a five dollar note.
Incorrect: She has bought two dozens apples.
Correct: She has bought two dozen apples.
Incorrect: I saw many deers in the jungle.
Correct: I saw many deer in the jungle.
The nouns sheep and deer have identical singular and plural forms.
Incorrect: Bring me some bloating.
Correct: Bring me some bloating paper.
Incorrect: The boy is in the boarding.
Correct: The boy is in the boarding house.
Incorrect: Please put your sign here.
Correct: Please put your signature here.
Incorrect: She is my cousin sister.
Correct: She is my cousin.
Expressions like cousin sister and cousin brother are wrong.

Correct the mistakes

Correct the following sentences.
1. The car either dashed against a goat or a donkey.
2. Neither he would eat nor allow us to eat.
3. He enquired that where was the office.
4. He asked that what was my name.
5. Alice is as tall if not taller than Mary.
6. Though he was poor but he was happy.
7. Hardly I had reached the station when the train steamed out.
Answer
1. The car dashed against either a goat or a donkey.
2. He would neither eat nor allow us to eat.
3. He enquired where the office was.
4. He asked what my name was.
5. Alice is as tall as Mary, if not taller.
6. Though he was poor, he was happy. OR He was poor but he was happy.
7. Hardly had I reached the station when the train steamed out.
Notes
The correlatives either…or, neither…nor, both…and, not only…but also should go immediately before the words they relate to.
The relative pronoun that cannot be used before interrogatives like what, where, when, whether and why.
Sentences beginning with negative words like hardly, scarcely and no sooner follow the inverted word order. That means the auxiliary verb comes before the subject..

Incorrect: The boy who works hard he will win.
Correct: The boy who works hard will win.
Explanation
This sentence has two clauses ‘the boy will win’ and ‘who works hard’ and each clause has its own subject. There is no need to use a pronoun when the noun it stands for is already present in the clause.
Incorrect: Whoever does best he will get a prize.
Correct: Whoever does best will get a prize.
Incorrect: Who painted this picture? Myself
Correct: Who painted this picture? I (myself)
Explanation
An emphatic pronoun (e.g. myself, himself, themselves, yourself) cannot be used as the subject of a sentence.
Incorrect: I and he are brothers.
Correct: He and I are brothers.
Explanation
It is considered conceited to put I first when there are two subjects.
Incorrect: I with my friends watched the show.
Correct: I watched the show with my friends.
Incorrect: He himself hurt due to his carelessness.
Correct: He hurt himself due to his carelessness.
Explanation
When a personal pronoun is used as subject it should not be separated from its verb if possible.
Incorrect: He is taller than me.
Correct: He is taller than I (am).
Explanation
The pronoun following than should be in the same case as the pronoun preceding it. Note that this rule is no longer strictly followed and the sentence ‘He is taller than me’ is considered correct.
Incorrect: None of us have seen him.
Correct: None of us has seen him.
Explanation
The words every, each, none etc., are singular in number and should be followed by singular verbs.
Incorrect: People starve when he has no money.
Correct: People starve when they have no money.
Explanation
The noun people is plural in number. The pronoun used instead of a plural noun should be plural in number.
Incorrect: My car is better than my friend.
Correct: My car is better than that of my friend.
Incorrect: The size of the shoe should be the same as this shoe.
Correct: The size of the shoe should be the same as that of this shoe.
Incorrect: His teaching was like Buddha.
Correct: His teaching was like that of Buddha.
Explanation
In a comparative sentence we must be careful to compare the same part of two things. That of, these of and those of are necessary words often omitted by ESL students.
Incorrect: None but I turned up.
Correct: None but me turned up.
Incorrect: They are all wrong but I.
Correct: They are all wrong but me.
Explanation
When but is used as a preposition it means except. The preposition but should be followed by a pronoun in the objective case

The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are always singular and, therefore, require singular verbs.

·         Everyone has done his or her homework.

·         Somebody has left her purse.

Some indefinite pronouns — such as all, some — are singular or plural depending on what they're referring to. (Is the thing referred to countable or not?) Be careful choosing a verb to accompany such pronouns.

·         Some of the beads are missing.

·         Some of the water is gone.

On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or plural; it often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb — unless something else in the sentence determines its number. (Writers generally think of none as meaning not any and will choose a plural verb, as in "None of the engines are working," but when something else makes us regard none as meaning not one, we want a singular verb, as in "None of the food is fresh.")

·         None of you claims responsibility for this incident?

·         None of you claim responsibility for this incident?

·         None of the students have done their homework. (In this last example, the word their precludes the use of the singular verb.

Some indefinite pronouns are particularly troublesome Everyone and everybody (listed above, also) certainly feel like more than one person and, therefore, students are sometimes tempted to use a plural verb with them. They are always singular, though. Each is often followed by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the cars), thus confusing the verb choice. Each, too, is always singular and requires a singular verb.

Everyone has finished his or her homework.

You would always say, "Everybody is here." This means that the word is singular and nothing will change that.

Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.

Don't let the word "students" confuse you; the subject is each and each is always singular — Each is responsible.

Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The phrase introduced by as well as or along with will modify the earlier word (mayor in this case), but it does not compound the subjects (as the word and would do).

·         The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.

·         The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.

The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even though they seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things.

·         Neither of the two traffic lights is working.

·         Which shirt do you want for Christmas?
Either is fine with me.

In informal writing, neither and either sometimes take a plural verb when these pronouns are followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with of. This is particularly true of interrogative constructions: "Have either of you two clowns read the assignment?" "Are either of you taking this seriously?" Burchfield calls this "a clash between notional and actual agreement."*

The conjunction or does not conjoin (as and does): when nor or or is used the subject closer to the verb determines the number of the verb. Whether the subject comes before or after the verb doesn't matter; the proximity determines the number.

·         Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.

·         Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.

·         Are either my brothers or my father responsible?

·         Is either my father or my brothers responsible?

Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house" sounds peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer to the verb whenever that is possible.

The words there and here are never subjects.

·         There are two reasons [plural subject] for this.

·         There is no reason for this.

·         Here are two apples.

With these constructions (called expletive constructions), the subject follows the verb but still determines the number of the verb.

Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it and anything those words can stand for) have s-endings. Other verbs do not add s-endings.

He loves and she loves and they love_ and . . . .

Sometimes modifiers will get betwen a subject and its verb, but these modifiers must not confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb.

The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of various crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several political lives, is finally going to jail.

Sometimes nouns take weird forms and can fool us into thinking they're plural when they're really singular and vice-versa. Consult the section on the Plural Forms of Nouns and the section on Collective Nouns for additional help. Words such as glasses, pants, pliers, and scissors are regarded as plural (and require plural verbs) unless they're preceded the phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the subject).

·         My glasses were on the bed.

·         My pants were torn.

·         A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.

Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and require singular verbs.

·         The news from the front is bad.

·         Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.

On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are nonetheless plural and require a plural verb.

·         My assets were wiped out in the depression.

·         The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.

·         Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.

The names of sports teams that do not end in "s" will take a plural verb: the Miami Heat have been looking … , The Connecticut Sun are hoping that new talent … . See the section on pluralsfor help with this problem.

Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. (The same is true, of course, when all, any, more, most and some act as subjects.) Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and require singular verbs. The expression "more than one" (oddly enough) takes a singular verb: "More than one student has tried this."

·         Some of the voters are still angry.

·         A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.

·         Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.

·         Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.

·         Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.

·         Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy.

·         Two and two is four.

·         Four times four divided by two is eight.

If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural, the other singular, the verb should agree with the positive subject.

·         The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on Valentine's Day.

·         It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue.

·         It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot.

It is possible for the two parts of a conditional sentence to refer to different times, and the resulting sentence is a "mixed conditional" sentence. There are two types of mixed conditional sentence:

A. Present result of past condition:

1. Form

The tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:

'IF' CLAUSE	MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect If I had worked harder at school If we had looked at the map	Present conditional I would have a better job now. we wouldn't be lost.

2. Function

In these sentences, the time is past in the 'if' clause, and present in the main clause. They refer to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present. They express a situation which is contrary to reality both in the past and in the present:
'If I had worked harder at school' is contrary to past fact - I didn't work hard at school, and 'I would have a better job now' is contrary to present fact - I haven't got a good job.
If we had looked at the map (we didn't), we wouldn't be lost (we are lost).

Examples

• I would be a millionaire now if I had taken that job.
• If you'd caught that plane you'd be dead now.
• If you hadn't spent all your money on CDs, you wouldn't be broke.

B. Past result of present or continuing condition.

1. Form

The tense in the If-clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional:

'IF' CLAUSE	MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past If I wasn't afraid of spiders If we didn't trust him	Perfect conditional I would have picked it up. we would have sacked him months ago.

2. Function

In these sentences the time in the If-clause is now or always, and the time in the main clause is before now. They refer to an unreal present situation and its probable (but unreal) past result:

• 'If I wasn't afraid of spiders' is contrary to present reality - I am afraid of spiders, and 'I would have picked it up' is contrary to past reality - I didn't pick it up.
• 'If we didn't trust him' is contrary to present reality - we do trust him, and 'we would have sacked him' is contrary to past reality - we haven't sacked him.

Examples

a. If she wasn't afraid of flying she wouldn't have travelled by boat.
b. I'd have been able to translate the letter if my Italian was better.
c. If I was a good cook, I'd have invited them to lunch.
d. If the elephant wasn't in love with the mouse, she'd have trodden on him by now.

               PREPOSITIONS

Common Errors in the Use of Prepositions

Incorrect: We discussed about the matter.
Correct: We discussed the matter.
Incorrect: We reached at the airport at 9 pm.
Correct: We reached the airport at 9 pm.
Incorrect: I have ordered for his dismissal.
Correct: I have ordered his dismissal.
Incorrect: He married with his friend’s sister.
Correct: He married his friend’s sister.
Incorrect: She entered into the room.
Correct: She entered the room.
Incorrect: The child resembles to its mother.
Correct: The child resembles its mother.
Incorrect: He is intelligence, but he lacks of experience.
Correct: He is intelligence but he lacks experience
Explanation
Verbs such as enter, resemble, lack, discuss, marry, reach, order and approach are normally followed by direct objects without prepositions.
Incorrect: What is the time in your watch?
Correct: What is the time by your watch?
Incorrect: We traveled in train.
Correct: We traveled by train.
Explanation
We write by train/car/bike/boat/plane/land/sea/air etc. But note that by is not used if there is an article. For example, we write in the car, on a bus, and not by the car or by a bus.
Incorrect: He is angry upon me.
Correct: He is angry with me.
Incorrect: I am pleased at you.
Correct: I am pleased with you.
Incorrect: He was trembling in rage.
Correct: He was trembling with rage.
Explanation
We use with in a number of expressions which say how people express their feelings and sensations. Common examples are: white with fear/rage, red with anger/embarrassment, green with envy, blue with cold etc.
Incorrect: Who is in the phone? It is John.
Correct: Who is on the phone? It is John.
Incorrect: There was an interesting show at TV.
Correct: There was an interesting show on TV.
Explanation
The correct expressions are on the radio, on TV, on the phone etc.
Incorrect: She washed her face in water.
Correct: She washed her face with water.
Incorrect: The snake was killed by a stone.
Correct: The snake was killed with a stone.
Explanation
We use with to talk about instruments with which something is done.
Incorrect: I go to school by foot.
Correct: I go to school on foot.
Incorrect: I congratulated her for her success.
Correct: I congratulated her on her success.

Omission of that

The conjunction that is often left out, especially in an informal style. Here are the details.
Indirect speech
That can be left out after common reporting verbs such as say, think, suggest etc.
Alice said that she would come. OR Alice said she would come.
She suggested that I should consult a doctor. OR She suggested I should consult a doctor.
That cannot be dropped after certain verbs. Examples are: reply and shout.
James replied that he had finished the work. (NOT James replied he had finished the work.)
She shouted that she was going. (NOT She shouted she was going.)
After adjectives
Some adjectives can be followed by that-clauses. That is left out in common expressions.
I am glad you have come. OR I am glad that you have come.
We were surprised that he phoned. OR We were surprised he phoned.
Conjunctions
Some common two word conjunctions (e.g. so that, such…that, provided that, supposing that, considering that etc.) are often used without that.
She walked in quietly so that nobody would hear her. OR She walked in quietly so nobody would hear her.
Assuming (that) we win the first prize, we will throw a party next week.
I have such regard for him (that) I will do anything to make him happy.
Relative structures
The relative pronoun that can be left out when it is the object in a relative clause.
These are the people that we met at the club. OR These are the people we met at the club

Verb patterns with that-clauses

That is simply a connector. That-clauses can have various functions in sentences. A that-clause, for example, can be the subject or object of a verb.
Verb pattern: subject + verb + that-clause
We hoped that we would win.
The teacher said that honesty is the best policy.
Mother suggested that I should consult a doctor.
He admitted that he had stolen the watch.
They complained that they had not been treated fairly.
We knew that the next day would be difficult.
I regretted that I was not going to be at the meeting.
I knew that she was innocent.
Common verbs that can be followed by that-clauses are: say, think, imagine, suppose, know, believe, admit, confess, suggest, complain, hope, expect, fear, feel, hear, show, understand and wonder.
Note that that is often omitted especially after verbs like say, think, suppose, hope and expect.
Alice said that she was feeling better. OR Alice said she was feeling better.
I thought that I would be late. OR I thought I would be late.
In an informal style that is sometimes left out in some common two-word conjunctions such as so that, such…that, supposing that etc.
Hurry up so (that) we won’t miss the train.
You can borrow my car provided (that) you bring it back tomorrow.
A that-clause can also follow a noun / pronoun.
Subject + verb + noun/ pronoun + that-clause
He told me that he was coming.
I warned him that he shouldn’t repeat it.
She assured me that she would help.
They have informed us that they are leaving this afternoon.
He convinced me that he could do the work well.

Tag questions: two meanings

Read the following sentence.
You will do it, won’t you?
This sentence can be said in two ways. If you say it with the voice falling on ‘won’t you’ it means, ‘I am sure, you will do it.’ But if you say it with the voice rising on ‘won’t you?’ it becomes a question. It means ‘I think you will do it – but I am not quite sure – please tell me if I am wrong.’
Exercise1. He will come, won’t he?
2. You won’t disappoint us, will you?
3. The train is arriving on time, isn’t it?
4. You can help us, can’t you?
5. It is worth the trouble, isn’t it?
6. We should buy some furniture, shouldn’t we?
7. He shouldn’t have said that, should he?
8. He is an intelligent person, isn’t he?
9. The meeting is at ten, isn’t it?
10. You will lend me a pound, won’t you?
Notes
When the statement is affirmative, the tag question is negative and when the statement is negative the tag question is affirmative.

Past and Past participle quiz 1

Fill in the blanks with the past and past participle of the words given in brackets.
1. The sailors ——————— to the broken mast, as the ship ———————-. (cling, sink)
2. They ——————- a deep well, but ——————- no water. (dig, find)
3. The snake —————— around the boy’s hand, but he ——————— it away. (wind, fling)
4. When the bell was ———————, the runners ——————– to their feet. (ring, spring)
5. As he ——————– the axe, it fell from his hands and his toe was ———————– in two. (swing, cleave)
6. The book —————— from my knee to the floor. (slide)
7. The wind —————— the leaves. (stir)
8. He —————— his hands in his pockets. (stick)
9. He —————– the ladder against the wall. (stand)
10. Malaria is a deadly disease —————— by mosquitoes. (spread)
11. There never has —————— a great man who has not been misunderstood. (arise)
12. Adam and his wife —————— themselves from the presence of the Lord God. (hide)
13. She was so angry that she ——————– the letter into pieces. (tear)
14. The boy who had ———————- the watch was arrested. (steal)
Answers

1.      clung, sank
2. dug, found
3. wound, flung
4. rung, sprang
5. swung, cleft
6. slid
7. stirred
8. stuck
9. stood
10. spread
11. arisen
12. hid
13. tore
14. stolen

Commonly confused words quiz 3

Complete the following sentences.
1. The candidates have been vigorously ———————— votes.
a) canvassing
b) canvasing
2. We must not violate the ——————– of law.
a) canons
b) cannons
3. Fighting a ——————- with one’s rival to win the love of a lady was very common in France in the eighteenth century.
a) dual
b) duel
4. What is ——————— of the Gurkha is his utter fearlessness.
a) distinct
b) distinctive
5. The —————— of troops on the border is a military strategy.
a) disposal
b) disposition
6. It was a —————— violation of the terms of the agreement.
a) fragrant
b) flagrant
7. You are worrying over —————— fears.
a) imaginary
b) imaginative
8. You can’t be a great writer if you are not ———————
a) imaginative
b) imaginary
9. He leads a ——————- life in the city, neglecting his parents who live in misery.
a) luxurious
b) luxuriant
10. He proved his ——————— by handling the situation with extreme tact and confidence.
a) metal
b) mettle
11. There I met a ——————— old gentleman with a tall stature and a flowing beard.
a) reverent
b) reverend
12. I am very ——————— about getting their support.
a) sanguinary
b) sanguine
Answers

1.      a) canvassing (request votes etc)
2. a) canons (rule or principle)
3. b) duel (a combat between two persons)
4. b) distinctive (characteristic)
5. b) disposition (arrangement)
6. b) flagrant (glaring, scandalous)
7. a) imaginary (not real)
8. a) imaginative (gifted with imagination)
9. a) luxurious (given to luxury)
10. b) mettle (quality, courage)
11. b) reverend (worthy of reverence)
12. b) sanguine (hopeful)

What are relative adverbs and relative pronouns?

A relative adverb is an adverb which introduces a relative clause. The English relative adverbs are: where, when, whenever and wherever.
The house where I live in is very small.
I will never forget the day when I met Jane.
Susie takes her cell phone wherever she goes.
I read books whenever I get time.
Relative pronoun
A relative pronoun is a pronoun which introduces a relative clause. Examples are: who, whom, which and whose. That is also sometimes used to introduce a relative clause. The use of a relative pronoun is usually optional in English. In informal English, it is usually omitted. In the following examples the optional relative pronoun appears in parentheses.
The necklace (which) my mother bought for me was very expensive.
The man (who) you were talking to is my father.
In the following examples, the relative pronouns who and whose are obligatory and cannot be omitted.
The woman who was sitting next to me is my aunt. (NOT The woman was sitting next to me is my aunt.)
The boy whose sister works with me is a good singer. (NOT The boy sister works with me is a good singer.)
Notes
A relative clause is a kind of subordinate clause which is attached to a noun within a noun phrase. A relative clause can be defining or non-defining. A defining relative clause is required to identify the noun it is attached to. In contrast, a non-defining relative clause is not required for identification; it only provides additional information.

Each other and one another

Each other and one another are used in the same way in modern English. One another is preferred when we are making general statements.
We see each other / one another every day. (= Each of us sees the other every day.)
They can sit for hours without talking to each other / one another.
Note that each other and one another are not usually used as subjects in a clause.
They sat for hours listening to what the other said. (NOT They sat for hours listening to what each other said.)
Each other and one another have possessive forms.
They would spend hours listening to each other’s / one another’s stories.
Words used without each other
Each other is not usually used after meet, marry and similar.
They met in 1999. (NOT They met each other in 1999.)
They married in 2004. (NOT They married each other in 2004.)
-selves and each other / one another
There is some difference between -selves and each other / one another.
Compare:
They talk to themselves for hours. (= Each of them talks to himself / herself for hours.)
They talk to each other / one another for hours. (= Each of them talks to the other.)

Each and each of

Each is a determiner. It is used before a singular noun.
Each boy wore a hat. (NOT Each boys wore a hat.)
Each person is unique.
While we were on a holiday we enjoyed each moment.
Each of
Each of is used before a pronoun or a noun with a determiner (e.g. demonstratives, articles and possessives). It is followed by a plural noun. The verb is singular but can be plural in an informal style. Note that we use object pronouns (e.g. us, them) after each of.
I have invited each of my friends. (NOT I have invited each my friends.)
Each of us has problems.
Each of us have problems. (more informal)
Position of each
When each refers to the subject it can go with the verb. Different structures are possible.
Subject + auxiliary verb + each + other verb(s)
They have each been invited. (= Each of them have been invited.)
They were each invited. (= Each of them were invited.)
Subject + each + main verb
We each think differently. (= Each of us think differently.)
Position with object
Each can follow an object.
She kissed them each on the forehead. (= She kissed each of them on the forehead.)
She bought us each an ice-cream.
Pronouns referring back to each can be singular (more formal) or plural (more informal).
Each girl gave her version of the story.
Each student was asked to bring his / her identity card. (More formal)
Each student was asked to bring their identity card. (More informal)

This and that: differences

This, that, these and those are demonstrative pronouns. We use this and these to talk about people and things which are close to the speaker.
Get this cat off my shoulder.
This is very nice – can you play it again?
Do you like this color?
We use that and those to talk about people or things which are more distant from the speaker. That and those are also used to talk about people or things which are not present at the moment of speaking.
Compare:
Get this cat off my shoulder.
Get that cat off the bed.
Look at this picture here and then at that picture over there.
Look at that man over there.
Those who want to go swimming must put their names down on the list.
Time
This and these can refer to situations and experiences which are going on at the moment of speaking.
Watch this.
Listen to this announcement.
That and those can refer to experiences which have finished. Note the use of the past tense.
That was a terrible experience. (NOT This was a terrible experience.)
I didn’t like that. (NOT I didn’t like this.)
On the telephone
On the telephone British people use this to say who they are, and that to ask about the hearer’s identity.
Hello, this is Jane. Is that Susie?
Americans may use this to ask about the hearer’s identity.
Who is this? (US)
Who is that? (GB)

Dress as a noun and verb

The noun dress is countable. It means the long outer garment worn by a girl or woman. It goes from the shoulders to below the hips.
She pays too much attention to her dress.
I have never seen you wearing a dress.
There is also an uncountable noun dress. It means ‘clothing’ or ‘clothes’. Note that the uncountable dress cannot be used with the article a/an. As an uncountable noun, dress is mostly used to talk about special kinds of clothing. Examples are: evening dress, national dress etc.
Everybody is required to wear their national dress on the occasion. (NOT Everybody is asked to wear their national dresses…)
He looks good in evening dress. (NOT He looks good in an evening dress.)
Dress as a verb
The verb dress is used to talk about putting clothes on oneself or somebody else. Undress is the opposite of dress.
She takes hours to dress in the morning.
She undressed herself. (= She took her clothes off.)
In an informal style we often use the expression ‘get dressed‘ to talk about dressing oneself.
Get dressed in five minutes.
When an article of clothing is mentioned we use the expressions put on and take off.
She put on a coat.
He took his boots off.
Be dressed in
The expression be dressed in is used to say what somebody is / was wearing on a particular occasion.
He was dressed in a dark suit.
The expression be wearing can be used instead of be dressed in. This is very common in British English. In American English, the expression have on is more usual.
She had on white pyjamas. = She was wearing white pyjamas. = She was dressed in white pyjamas.
Complete the following sentences using appropriate verb forms.
1. Send the letter today so that she ——————– it before Friday.
a) got
b) gets
c) would get
d) is getting
2. I am going to make an early start so that I ——————- get stuck in the traffic.
a) didn’t
b) won’t
c) shouldn’t
d) hadn’t
3. Ann talked to the shy girl so that she —————– feel left out.
a) won’t
b) wouldn’t
c) hadn’t
d) can’t
4. She is staying here for six months so that she ———————- perfect her English.
a) could
b) should
c) can
d) had
5. If I had gone to university, I —————— studied medicine.
a) would
b) would have
c) had
d) will have
6. I realized that we ——————- before.
a) had met
b) have met
c) met
d) would meet
7. My legs were stiff because I —————— still for a long time.
a) am standing
b) had been standing
c) have been standing
d) will be standing
8. As soon as I —————– the phone down it rang again.
a) had put
b) have put
c) would put
d) will put
9. If you —————– the ten o’clock train tomorrow you could be in Chicago by supper-time.
a) had caught
b) caught
c) would catch
d) have caught
10. They ——————– in France for well over six years now.
a) have been living
b) are living
c) had been living
d) had lived
Answers

1.      b) gets (will get)
2. b) won’t (or don’t)
3. b) wouldn’t
4. c) can
5. b) would have
6. a) had met
7. b) had been standing
8. had put
9. b) caught
10. a) have been livinG.

Some transitive verbs are followed by an object together with an object complement. Note that an object complement is a word or phrase that gives more information about the object. It is usually an adjective or noun phrase.
She made me cry. (object – me; complement – cry)
You make me happy. (object – me; complement – happy)
You are driving us crazy.
She called me a liar.
I found her attitude strange.
‘Would you like to join the committee?’ ‘I would consider it an honor.’
Structures with as
After some verbs, an object complement is introduced by as. This is common when we say how we describe somebody or something.
We regarded him as a genius.
She described her attacker as a tall white man with a moustache.
Some verbs are followed by an object + infinitive + complement. The verbs that are usually followed by this structure include the following: believe, consider, feel, know, find, understand. In an informal style that-clauses are more common.
We considered him to be a genius. OR We considered that he was a genius.
They mistook her to be a German spy.
Note that the verb think is not usually followed by an infinitive + complement. Instead we use a that-clause.
I thought that she was mistaken. (More natural than ‘I thought her to be mistaken.’)
It is possible to drop to be after the verbs believe, consider, find and think.
We found her sincere. OR We found her to be sincere.
I considered the plan unwise. OR I considered the plan to be unwise.

Exclamatory sentences: verb patterns

Exclamatory sentences are often constructed with what and how or with so and such. Negative question forms are also used.
Exclamations with what
What a/an + (adjective) + singular countable noun

• What a beautiful girl! (NOT What beautiful girl!)
• What a lovely song!
• What a rude man!
• What a pleasant surprise!

What + a/an + (adjective) + noun + subject + verb

• What a fool you are! (NOT What a fool are you!)
• What a charming girl she is! (NOT What a charming girl is she!)
• What a beautiful smile you have! (NOT What a beautiful smile have you!)

What + adjective + uncountable / plural noun

• What lovely flowers!
• What beautiful weather! (NOT What a beautiful weather!)

Exclamations with how
How + adjective / adverb + subject + verb

• How tall you have grown! (NOT How you have grown tall!)
• How cold it is!
• How clever she is!
• How beautifully she dances!
• How quickly he speaks!

Exclamations with so and such
So + adjective

• You are so sweet!
• She is so tall!

Such a/an + adjective + singular countable noun

• She is such a lovely girl. (NOT She is a such lovely girl!)

Such + adjective + uncountable / plural noun

• They are such kind people! (NOT They are so kind people!)
• They are so kind!. (NOT They are such kind!)
• He talks such rubbish! (NOT He talks such a rubbish!)

Negative question forms
British speakers often use negative question forms in exclamations.

• Hasn’t she grown!

Americans often use non-negative question forms in exclamations.

• Boy, did I make a mistake! (US)
• Boy, didn’t I make a mistake! (GB)

Kind of / sort of etc
The article a/an is usually left out after kind of, sort of, type of and similar expressions.
Have you got a cheaper sort of stereo? (More natural than … a cheaper sort of a stereo.)
What kind of person is she?
Scientists are developing a new variety of tomato.
After amount / number etc
We do not use the after the amount / number of.
The number of unemployed is rising. (NOT The number of the unemployed …)
Man and woman
The singular countable nouns man and woman can be used in a general sense without articles.
Man and woman are created equal. (NOT The man and the woman are created equal.)
Man is mortal.
Note that in modern English we often use the plural form men and women.
Men and women are created equal.
Exclamations
A/an is used with singular countable nouns in exclamations after What.
What a nice present! (NOT What nice present!)
What a lovely song! (NOT What lovely song!)
Note that a/an cannot be used with uncountable nouns in exclamations.
What nonsense! (NOT What a nonsense!)
Jobs and positions
The is not used in titles like Princess Diana, President Kennedy or Queen Elizabeth.
Compare:
Queen Elizabeth had talks with President Clinton. (NOT The Queen Elizabeth had talks with the President Clinton.)
The President had dinner with the Queen. (NOT President had dinner with Queen.)
Complements
The is not usually used with the complement of a sentence.
Compare:
He is the monitor. (NOT He is monitor.)
They appointed him monitor. (NOT They appointed him the monitor.)
He was elected Chairman. (NOT He was elected the Chairman.)
I want to talk to the Chairman. (NOT I want to talk to Chairman.)

Structures with it

It is used as the preparatory subject in a number of structures.
It + be + adjective + of + noun/pronoun + to-infinitive
It was clever of him to find his way out.
It was unwise of me to lend her money.
It was foolish of him to reject the offer.
It is wicked of him to say such things.
The adjectives that are usually used in this pattern include the following: kind, good, generous, considerate, foolish, stupid, wise, unwise, clever, nice, wrong,  polite, brave, silly, wicked, cruel, careless etc.
It + be + adjective + to-infinitive
This structure is usually used to make general statements.
It is easy to learn English.
It is wise to give up smoking.
It is bad to tell lies.
It is impossible to lift the box.
It + be + no good etc. + gerund phrase
It is no good asking him for help.
It is no use arguing with her.
It was worth seeing the film.
It is worth visiting Egypt.
It + be + adjective / noun + noun clause
It is doubtful whether they will be able to help us.
It is strange that she should forget me so quickly.
It is a pity that she didn’t make another attempt.
It + take + personal pronoun + time expression + to-infinitive
It took me ten minutes to get dressed.
It took him two months to recover from his illness.
It will take you only five minutes to walk to the station.
It took me one year to learn English.

Do and Make Differences

The general purpose do has several uses. It is sometimes confused with the verb make. These words have similar meanings, but there are also a few differences.
Uses of do
Do is commonly used with the words thing, something, nothing, anything, everything etc.
He did something strange.
I like doing nothing.
He did nothing.
We use do when we talk about work and jobs.
Would you like to do this job?
I don’t like to do any work.
Uses of make
Make is used to talk about constructing or creating.
Let me make some food.
I will make you some coffee.
When we want to sound casual about an activity we often use do instead of make.
‘What shall we eat?’ ‘Well, let me just do an omelette.’
Do is used in the following fixed expressions
Do good
Do harm
Do business
Do one’s best
Do a favor
Do one’s hair
Do one’s duty
Make is used in the following fixed expressions:
Make a journey
Make an offer
Make arrangements
Make a suggestion
Make an attempt
Make an excuse
Make a mistake
Make money
Make a phone call
Make peace
Make war
Make a bed